What Which of the following happened after nationalism in the Ottoman empire led to revolts?

1908–1922 breakdown, occupation and replacement of the Ottoman Empire

The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Young Turk Revolution which restored the constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-political party politics with a 2-phase electoral system for the Ottoman parliament. At the same fourth dimension, a nascent movement called Ottomanism was promoted in an attempt to maintain the unity of the Empire, emphasising a collective Ottoman nationalism regardless of organized religion or ethnicity. Within the empire, the new constitution was initially seen positively, as an opportunity to modernize state institutions and resolve inter-communal tensions between different ethnic groups.^[1]

Instead, this menstruum became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Despite armed forces reforms, the Ottoman Army met with disastrous defeat in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), resulting in the Ottomans being driven out of North Africa and nigh out of Europe. Continuous unrest leading up to World War I resulted in the 31 March Incident, 1912 Ottoman coup d'état and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. The Committee of Wedlock and Progress (Cup) regime became increasingly radicalised during this period, and conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens, events sometimes collectively referred to as the Belatedly Ottoman genocides. Ottoman participation in World War I ended with defeat and the partition of the empire'southward remaining territories under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The treaty, formulated at the conference of London, allocated nominal country to the Ottoman state and allowed it to retain the designation of "Ottoman Caliphate" (similar to the Vatican, a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled past the Catholic Pope), leaving it severely weakened. I gene behind this arrangement was Britain's desire to thwart the Khilafat Movement.

The occupation of Constantinople (Istanbul), along with the occupation of Smyrna (Izmir), mobilized the Turkish national motility, which ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence. The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by the Grand National Associates of Turkey on ane November 1922. The Sultan was declared persona non grata from the lands the Ottoman Dynasty had ruled since 1299.

Background [edit]

[edit]

Europe became dominated by nation states with the rise of nationalism in Europe. The 19th century saw the ascension of nationalism nether the Ottoman Empire which resulted in the establishment of an independent Greece in 1821, Serbia in 1835, and Bulgaria in 1877-1878. Unlike the European nations, the Ottoman Empire fabricated little attempt to integrate conquered peoples through cultural assimilation.^[2] Instead, Ottoman policy was to rule through the millet organisation, consisting of confessional communities for each religion.^[a]

The Empire never fully integrated its conquests economically and therefore never established a bounden link with its subjects.^[ii] Between 1828 and 1908, the Empire tried to catch up with industrialization and a rapidly emerging world marketplace by reforming land and society. Ottomanism, originating from Young Ottomans who were inspired by the French Revolution social contract theorists Montesquieu and Rousseau, promoted equality amongst the millets and stated that every subject was equal earlier the police force. Proponents of Ottomanism believed accepting all separate ethnicities and religions equally Ottomans could solve social issues.^[4] Post-obit the Tanzimat reforms, major reforms were introduced into the structure of the Empire. The essence of the millet arrangement was non dismantled, but secular organizations and policies were established. Master educational activity and conscription were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike. Michael Hechter argues that the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire was the issue of a backlash against Ottoman attempts to institute more than straight and central forms of dominion over populations which had previously had greater autonomy.^[5]

Economic issues [edit]

Ottoman Loan certificate, 1933; printed in French

The Capitulations were the primary word of economical policy during the period. It used to exist believed incoming strange assistance with capitulation could do good the Empire. Ottoman officials, representing different jurisdictions, sought bribes at every opportunity and withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory revenue enhancement system. This ruined every struggling industry past the graft, and fought against every prove of independence on the part of Empire's many bailiwick peoples.

The Ottoman public debt was role of a larger scheme of control by the European powers, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to proceeds advantages that may non have been of the Empire'due south involvement. The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (or Central bank). The total pre-Globe War debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had threescore percent of the total. Frg had twenty percent. The United Kingdom owned 15 percent. The Ottoman Debt Assistants controlled many of the important revenues of the Empire. The Council had power over fiscal affairs; its command even extended to determine the tax on livestock in the districts.

Immature Turk Revolution [edit]

In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution changed the political structure of the Empire. The Committee of Marriage and Progress (CUP) rebelled against the accented dominion of Sultan Abdul Hamid II to institute the Second Constitutional Era. On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid 2 capitulated and restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876.

The revolution created multi-party democracy. One time undercover, the Young Turk motion declared its parties.^{[six] : 32} Among them was "Union and Progress" (CUP), and the "Ottoman Freedom Party."

At that place were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party and indigenous parties which included People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Department), Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, Jewish Social Democratic Labour Political party in Palestine (Poale Zion), Al-Fatat (also known as the Young Arab Guild; Jam'iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat), Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization, and Armenians were organized nether the Armenakan, Hunchakian and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF/Dashnak).

At the onset, there was a desire to remain unified, and the competing groups wished to maintain a mutual country. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary System (IMRO) collaborated with the members of the CUP, and Greeks and Bulgarians joined under the second biggest party, the Liberty Party. The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed the revolution, and they later joined mainstream politics as the People'south Federative Party. The former centralists of the IMRO formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, and, like the PFP, they participated in 1908 Ottoman general election.

Further disintegration [edit]

The de jure Bulgarian Proclamation of Independence on v October [O.Due south. 22 September] 1908 from the Empire was proclaimed in the sometime majuscule of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, who afterwards took the title "Tsar".

The Bosnian crisis on 6 October 1908 erupted when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formally within the sovereignty of the Empire. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Republic of bulgaria's declaration of independence (5 October) from the Empire. The Ottoman Empire protested Republic of bulgaria'due south declaration with more vigour than the looting of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had no practical prospects of governing. A cold-shoulder of Austro-Hungarian appurtenances and shops occurred, inflicting commercial losses of over 100,000,000 kronen on Republic of austria-Hungary. Austria-Republic of hungary agreed to pay the Ottomans ₤2.ii million for the public state in Bosnia-Herzegovina.^[7] Bulgarian independence could not be reversed.

Just later on the revolution in 1908, the Cretan deputies declared matrimony with Greece, taking advantage of the revolution equally well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island.^[eight] 1908 ended with the result nevertheless unresolved between the Empire and the Cretans. In 1909, after the parliament elected its governing structure (first cabinet), the CUP majority decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected, the effect would exist solved with negotiations.

The Second Constitutional Era (1908–1920) [edit]

New Parliament [edit]

1908 Ottoman general election was preceded by political campaigns. In the summer of 1908, a variety of political proposals were put forward past the Cup. The CUP stated in its election manifesto that information technology sought to modernize the country by reforming finance and education, promoting public works and agriculture, and the principles of equality and justice.^[ix] Regarding nationalism, (Armenian, Kurd, Turkic..) the Cup identified the Turks as the "dominant nation" around which the empire should exist organized, not unlike the position of Germans in Austria-Hungary. According to Reynolds, only a small minority in the Empire occupied themselves with Pan-Turkism, at least in 1908.^[10]

The election was held in October and November 1908. CUP-sponsored candidates were opposed past the Liberals. The latter became a centre for those opposing the Cup. Sabaheddin Bey, who returned from his long exile, believed that in non-homogeneous provinces a decentralized authorities was best. The Liberals were poorly organized in the provinces, and failed to convince minority candidates to competition the election nether the Freedom Party banner; information technology as well failed to tap into the continuing back up for the old authorities in less developed areas.^[9]

During September 1908, the important Hejaz Railway opened, construction of which had started in 1900. Ottoman rule was firmly re-established in Hejaz and Yemen with the railroad from Damascus to Medina. Historically, Arabia's interior was mostly controlled by playing 1 tribal group off against another. Every bit the railroad finished, opposing Wahhabi Islamic fundamentalists reasserted themselves under the political leadership of Abdul al-Aziz Ibn Saud.

Christian communities of the Balkans felt that the Loving cup no longer represented their aspirations. They had heard the Loving cup's arguments before, nether the Tanzimat reforms:

Those in the vanguard of reform had appropriated the notion of Ottomanism, only the contradictions implicit in the applied realization of this ideology – in persuading Muslims and non-Muslims alike that the achievement of true equality betwixt them entailed the acceptance by both of obligations also as rights – posed Cup a problem. October 1908 saw the new regime suffer a pregnant blow with the loss of Republic of bulgaria, Bosnia, and Crete, over which the empire still exercised nominal sovereignty.^[ix]

The arrangement became multi-headed, with old and new structures coexisting, until the CUP took full control of the government in 1913 and, under the anarchy of alter, power was exercised without accountability.

The Senate of the Ottoman Empire was opened by the Sultan on 17 December 1908. The new twelvemonth brought the results of 1908 elections. Bedchamber of Deputies gathered on 30 January 1909. The Loving cup needed a strategy to realize their Ottomanist ideals.^[ix]

In 1909, public club laws and law were unable to maintain order; protesters were prepared to chance reprisals to limited their grievances. In the iii months following the inauguration of the new regime there were more 100 strikes, constituting three-quarters of the labor strength of the Empire, mainly in Constantinople and Salonika (Thessaloniki). During previous strikes (Anatolian tax revolts in 1905-1907) the Sultan remained above criticism and bureaucrats and administrators were accounted corrupt; this fourth dimension CUP took the blame. In the parliament the Freedom Political party accused the CUP of authoritarianism. Abdul Hamid's Grand Viziers Said and Kâmil Pasha and his Strange Minister Tevfik Pasha continued in the part. They were at present independent of the Sultan and were taking measures to strengthen the Porte against the encroachments of both the Palace and the CUP. Said and Kâmil were yet men of the old authorities.^[9]

31 March Incident [edit]

Action Army reestablishing constitutionalism by entering Constantinople

After nine months into the new government, discontent plant expression in a fundamentalist motion which attempted to dismantle Constitution and revert information technology with a monarchy. The 31 March Incident began when Abdul Hamid promised to restore the Caliphate, eliminate secular policies, and restore the dominion of Islamic police, as the mutinous troops claimed. CUP also eliminated the time for religious observance.^[9] Unfortunately for the advocates of representative parliamentary government, mutinous demonstrations past disenfranchised regimental officers bankrupt out on 13 April 1909, which led to the collapse of the regime.^{[6] : 33} On 27 April 1909 the counter-coup was put down using the 11th Salonika Reserve Infantry Partitioning of the Third Army. Some of the leaders of Bulgarian federalist wing like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in the march on Majuscule to depose the "attempt to dismantle constitution".^[11] Abdul Hamid II was removed from the throne, and Mehmed V became the Sultan. On v Baronial 1909, the revised constitution was granted by the new Sultan Mehmed Five. This revised constitution, as the 1 before, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, armed forces service (allowing Christians into the military for the offset time), and political rights. The new constitution was perceived every bit a big step for the establishment of a mutual law for all subjects. The position of Sultan was greatly reduced to a figurehead, while still retaining some constitutional powers, such as the ability to declare war.^[12] The new constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not address certain public services, such every bit the Ottoman public debt, the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration because of their international grapheme. The aforementioned held truthful of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such every bit Baghdad Railway, tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the "Regie Company", and "Narquileh tobacco".

Italian War, 1911 [edit]

Italia declared war, the Italo-Turkish War, on the Empire on 29 September 1911, demanding the turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. Italian forces took those areas on 5 November of that twelvemonth. Although modest, the war was an of import precursor of Earth War I as information technology sparked nationalism in the Balkan states.

The Ottomans lost their last directly ruled African territory. The Italians also sent weapons to Montenegro, encouraged Albanian dissidents, and seized the Dodecanese.^[12] Seeing how easily the Italians had defeated the disorganized Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the Empire before the war with Italian republic had ended.

On eighteen Oct 1912, Italy and the Empire signed a treaty in Ouchy near Lausanne. Frequently called Treaty of Ouchy, only also named equally the First Treaty of Lausanne.

1912 election and coup [edit]

The Liberty and Accord Party, successor to the Liberty Political party, was in ability when the Start Balkan War broke out in October. The Party of Union and Progress won landslide the 1912 Ottoman general election. Decentralization (the Liberal Union'south position) was rejected and all effort was directed toward streamline of the regime, streamlining the administration (bureaucracy), and strengthening the armed services. The Cup, which got the public mandate from the electorate, did not compromise with minority parties like their predecessors (that is being Sultan Abdul Hamid) had been.^[12] The commencement three years of relations between the new government and the Great Powers were demoralizing and frustrating. The Powers refused to make whatever concessions over the Capitulations and loosen their grip over the Empire's internal affairs.^[13]

The territorial gains of the Balkan states after the Balkan Wars

When the Italian War and the counterinsurgency operations in Albania and Yemen began to fail, a number of high-ranking military officers, who were unhappy with the counterproductive political involvement in these wars, formed a political commission in the capital. Calling themselves the Savior Officers, its members were committed to reducing the autocratic command wielded by the CUP over military operations. Supported by the Liberty and Accord in parliament, these officers threatened violent activeness unless their demands were met. Said Pasha resigned as K Vizier on 17 July 1912, and the government collapsed. A new authorities, so called the "Peachy cabinet", was formed past Ahmet Muhtar Pasha. The members of the government were prestigious statesmen, technocrat authorities, and they easily received the vote of confidence. The Cup excluded from cabinet posts.^{[half dozen] : 101}

The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons established by largely under French guidance in 1912.^[12] Squadrons were established in a short fourth dimension as Louis Blériot and the Belgian pilot Baron Pierre de Caters performed the first flying demonstration in the Empire on two December 1909.

Balkan Wars, 1912–1913 [edit]

The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro, sought additional territories from the Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace regions, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. On 10 October 1912 the collective note of the powers was handed. Cup responded to demands of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on xiv October.^{[14] [ clarification needed ]}

While the Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a serial of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, between Greece and Republic of bulgaria in May 1912, and Montenegro later on concluded agreements betwixt Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in Oct 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically chosen for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the Commencement Balkan War. A nationalist uprising bankrupt out in Albania, and on eight Oct, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a articulation assail on the Empire, starting the Start Balkan War. The potent march of the Bulgarian forces in Thrace pushed the Ottoman armies to the gates of Constantinople. The Second Balkan War before long followed. Albania declared independence on 28 November.

Cholera was common among soldiers

Retreating Ottoman Soldiers

The empire agreed to a armistice on 2 December, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest. Albania became independent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory (Kosovo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Republic of macedonia and western Thrace) to the four allies. These treaties resulted in the loss of 83 per centum of their European territory and almost 70 percent of their European population.^[15]

Inter-communal conflicts, 1911–1913 [edit]

In the two-twelvemonth menstruum between September 1911 and September 1913 indigenous cleansing sent hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees, or muhacir, streaming into the Empire, adding even so another economical burden and straining the social cloth. During the wars, food shortages and hundreds of thousands of refugees haunted the empire. After the state of war there was a fierce expulsion of the Muslim peasants of eastern Thrace.^[15]

Cession of Kuwait and Albania, 1913 [edit]

The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was a short-lived agreement signed in July 1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed V and the British over several bug. However the status of State of kuwait that came to be the only lasting result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait.

Albania had been nether Ottoman rule since about 1478. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Hellenic republic laid merits to Albanian-populated lands during Balkan Wars, the Albanians declared independence.^[16] The European Great Powers endorsed an contained Albania in 1913, after the Second Balkan State of war leaving exterior the Albanian border more than than half of the Albanian population and their lands, that were partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece. They were assisted by Aubrey Herbert, a British MP who passionately advocated their cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Republic of albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting. Instead the offer went to William of Wied, a German language prince who accustomed and became sovereign of the new Principality of Republic of albania. Albania'southward neighbours still bandage covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic land.^[fifteen] The young land, however, complanate within weeks of the outbreak of World War I.^[sixteen]

Union and Progress takes control (1913–1918) [edit]

At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italian republic, and Balkan war erupted in the autumn of 1912. Freedom and Accordance flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the Cup^[17] The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the Loving cup to seize control of the authorities.

The Freedom and Accord Party presented the peace proposal to the Ottoman government as a commonage démarche, which was almost immediately accepted by both the Ottoman cabinet and by an overwhelming majority of the parliament on 22 January 1913.^{[6] : 101} The 1913 Ottoman putsch (23 January), was carried out by a number of Cup members led past Ismail Enver and Mehmed Talaat, in which the group fabricated a surprise raid on the central Ottoman government buildings, the Sublime Porte (Turkish: Bâb-ı Âlî). During the coup, the Minister of the Navy Nazım Pasha was assassinated and the Yard Vizier, Kâmil Pasha, was forced to resign. The CUP established tighter command over the unpleasing Ottoman state.^{[six] : 98} The new m vizier Mahmud Sevket Pasha was assassinated by Freedom and Accord supporters merely in 5 months after the coup in June 1913. Cemal Pasha's posting as commendante of Constantinople put the party underground. The execution of onetime officials had been an exception since the Tanzimat (1840s) menstruation; punishment was usually exile. The public life could not be far more hardhearted 75 years after the Tanzimat.^[17] The Strange Ministry was always occupied by someone from the inner circle of the CUP except for the interim appointment of Muhtar Bey. Said Halim Pasha who was already Strange Minister, became Chiliad Vizier in June 1913 and remained in office until October 1915. He was succeeded in the Ministry by Halil Menteşe.

1000 Vizier and Generalissimo Mahmut Shevket Pasha, who was assassinated less than half dozen months into his premiership

In May 1913 a German war machine mission assigned Otto Liman von Sanders to help train and reorganize the Ottoman army. Otto Liman von Sanders was assigned to reorganize the First Regular army, his model to be replicated to other units; as an advisor [he took the command of this army in November 1914] and began working on its operational area which was the straits. This became a scandal and intolerable for St. Petersburg. The Russian Empire developed a program for invading and occupying the Black Bounding main port of Trabzon or the Eastern Anatolian town of Bayezid in retaliation. To solve this issue Germany demoted Otto Liman von Sanders to a rank with which he could barely command an army corps. If there was no solution through Naval occupation of Constantinople, the adjacent Russian thought was to improve the Russian Caucasus Regular army.

Elections, 1914 [edit]

The Empire lost territory in the Balkans, where many of its Christian voters were based before the 1914 elections. The CUP fabricated efforts to win support in the Arab provinces past making conciliatory gestures to Arab leaders. Weakened Arab support for Freedom and Accord enabled the CUP to call elections with unionists property the upper hand. After 1914 elections, the democratic structure had a better representation in the parliament; the parliament that emerged from the elections in 1914 reflected better ethnic composition of the Ottoman population. There were more Arab deputies, which were under-represented in previous parliaments. The Loving cup had a majority government. Ismail Enver became a Pasha and was assigned as the Government minister of War; Ahmet Cemal who was the military governor of Constantinople became Minister of the Navy; and once the postal official Talaat became the Minister of the Interior. These Three Pashas would maintain de facto control of the Empire as a military regime and almost equally a personal dictatorship under Talaat Pasha during the Earth State of war I. Until the 1919 Ottoman general election, any other input into the political procedure was restricted with the outbreak of the World War I.^[17]

Local-Regional politics [edit]

Albanian politics [edit]

The Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan, where the Albanian National Awakening spread, were amidst the first groups to join the constitutional movement, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. However, due to shifting national borders in the Balkans, the Albanians had been marginalized as a nation-less people. The most significant gene uniting the Albanians, their spoken linguistic communication, lacked a standard literary class and fifty-fifty a standard alphabet. Nether the new government the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language lifted. The new regime likewise appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to endeavour to impose the Arabic alphabet. The Albanians refused to submit to the entrada to "Ottomanize" them by force. Equally a effect, Albanian intellectuals coming together, the Congress of Manastir on 22 November 1908, chose the Latin alphabet every bit a standard script.

Arab politics [edit]

The Hauran Druze Rebellion was a violent Druze insurgence in the Syrian province, which erupted in 1909. The rebellion was led past the al-Atrash family unit, in an aim to gain independence. A concern dispute between Druze chief Yahia bey Atrash in the village of Basr al-Harir escalated into a clash of arms between the Druze and Ottoman-backed local villagers.^[18] Though it is the financial change during second constitutional area; the spread of taxation, elections and conscription, to areas already undergoing economic change caused by the construction of new railroads, provoked large revolts, particularly among the Druzes and the Hauran.^[xix] Sami Pasha al-Farouqi arrived in Damascus in August 1910, leading an Ottoman expeditionary force of some 35 battalions.^[18] The resistance complanate.^[18]

In 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians formed "The Young Arab Society", a small-scale Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its beingness, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman ground forces not exist required to serve in not-Arab regions except in fourth dimension of war. All the same, equally the Ottoman government cracked downwards on the organization'south activities and members, al-Fatat went hush-hush and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.^[20]

Nationalist movement become prominent during this Ottoman menstruation, but it has to exist mentioned that this was among Arab nobles and common Arabs considered themselves loyal subjects of the Caliph.^{[21] : 229} Instead of Ottoman Caliph, the British, for their part, incited the Sharif of Mecca to launch the Arab Revolt during the Kickoff World War.^{[21] : 8–nine}

Armenian politics [edit]

In 1908, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) or Dashnak Party embraced a public position endorsing participation and reconciliation in the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire and the abandonment of the idea of an independent Armenia. Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian managed the political campaign for the 1908 Ottoman Elections. ARF field workers were dispatched to the provinces containing significant Armenian populations; for instance, Drastamat Kanayan (Dro), went to Diyarbakir every bit a political organizer. The Committee of Marriage and Progress could simply able to bring 10 Armenian representatives to the 288 seats in the 1908 election. The other iv Armenians represented parties with no indigenous affiliation. The ARF was aware that the elections were shaky ground and maintained its political management and self-defence mechanism intact and connected to smuggle arms and ammunition.^{[six] : 33}

On 13 April 1909, while Constantinople was dealing with the consequences of 31 March Incident, an outbreak of violence, known today as the Adana Massacre, shook in April the ARF-CUP relations to the core. On 24 April the 31 March Incident and suppression of the Adana violence followed each other. The Ottoman authorities in Adana brought in military forces and ruthlessly stamped out both real opponents, while at the same fourth dimension massacring thousands of innocent people. In July 1909, the CUP government appear the trials of diverse local regime and armed forces officials, for "existence implicated in the Armenian massacres.".

On 15 January 1912, the Ottoman parliament dissolved and political campaigns began almost immediately. After the election, on v May 1912, Dashnak officially severed the relations with the Ottoman government; a public declaration of the Western Bureau printed in the official announcement was directed to "Ottoman Citizens." The June issue of Droshak ran an editorial about information technology.^{[22] : 35}

In October 1912, George Five of Armenia engaged in negotiations with General Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov to discuss Armenian reforms inside the Russian Empire. In December 1912, Kevork V formed the Armenian National Delegation and appointed Boghos Nubar. The delegation established itself in Paris. Another member appointed to the delegation was James Malcolm who resided in London and became the delegation's point man in its dealings with the British. In early 1913, Armenian diplomacy shaped as Boghos Nubar was to exist responsible for external negotiations with the European governments, while the Political Quango "seconded by the Constantinople and Tblisi Commissions" were to negotiate the reform question internally with the Ottoman and Russian governments.^{[6] : 99} The Armenian reform package was established in February 1914 based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. The programme called for the unification of the Vi Vilayets and the nomination of a Christian governor and religiously balanced quango over the unified provinces, the establishment of a second Gendarmerie over Ottoman Gendarmerie commanded by European officers, the legalization of the Armenian language and schools, and the establishment of a special commission to examine land confiscations empowered to miscarry Muslim refugees. The nearly important clause was obligating the European powers to enforce the reforms, by overriding the regional governments.^{[b] [vi] : 104–105}

During the Leap of 1913, the provinces faced increasingly worse relations between Kurds and Armenians that created an urgent need for the ARF to revive its cocky-defence capability. In 1913, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (followed by other Ottoman political parties) changed its policy and stopped cooperating with the CUP, moving out of the concept of Ottomanism and developing its own kind of nationalism.^[23]

From the finish of July to ii Baronial 1914, the Armenian congress at Erzurum happened. There was a meeting between the Committee of Progress and Union and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Armenian liaisons Arshak Vramian, Zorian and Khatchatour Maloumian and Ottoman liaisons Dr. Behaeddin Shakir, Omer Naji, and Hilmi Bey were accompanied by an international entourage of peoples from the Caucasus. The Cup requested to incite a rebellion of Russian Armenians against the Tsarist regime in Russian Armenia, in order to facilitate the conquest of Transcaucasia in the event of the opening up of the Caucasus Campaign.^[24] Around the same time, a representative meeting of Russian Armenians assembled in Tiflis, Russian Armenia. The Tsar asked Armenian's loyalty and support for Russia in the disharmonize.^[25] The proposal was agreed upon and virtually twenty,000 Armenians who responded to the call of forming Armenian volunteer units inside the Russian Caucasus Army), of which only seven,000 were given artillery.^[26] On 2 November, the first appointment of the Caucasus Campaign began (the Bergmann Offensive), and on 16 December 1914, the Ottoman Empire officially dismantled the Armenian reform bundle.

Ottoman intelligence services detected a plot by Hunchakian operatives to electrocute leading Loving cup members, and simply foiled the plot in a single operation in July 1914.^{[6] : 108} The trials took a year and the participants, named the 20 Hunchakian gallows were executed on 15 June 1915.

Kurdish politics [edit]

Ottoman Kurds in Majority (Yellow),Pre World War one

The first Kurds to challenge the authority of the Ottoman Empire did so primarily as Ottoman subjects, rather than national Kurds. Abdul Hamid responded with a policy of repression, just likewise of integration, co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents into the Ottoman power structure with prestigious positions in his regime. This strategy appeared successful given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye Cavalry.^[27]

In 1908, after the overthrow of Sultan, the Hamidiye was disbanded equally an organized strength, but equally they were "tribal forces" before official recognition by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1892, they stayed as "tribal forces" later on dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is oftentimes described as a failure considering of its contribution to tribal feuds.^[28]

Shaykh Abd al Qadir in 1910 appealed to the CUP for an autonomous Kurdish state in the eastward. That aforementioned year, Said Nursi travelled through the Diyarbakir region and urged Kurds to unite and forget their differences, while still carefully claiming loyalty to the Cup.^[29] Other Kurdish Shaykhs in the region began leaning towards regional autonomy. During this time, the Badr Khans had been in contact with discontented Shaykhs and chieftains in the far east of Anatolia ranging to the Iranian border, more in the framework of secession, however. Shaykh Abd al Razzaq Badr Khan somewhen formed an brotherhood with Shaykh Taha and Shaykh Abd al Salam Barzani, another powerful family.

In 1914, considering of the possible Kurdish threat besides as the alliance's dealings with Russian federation, Ottoman troops moved against this brotherhood. 2 brief and modest rebellions, the rebellions of Barzan and Bitlis, were chop-chop suppressed.^[30]

In 1914, Full general Muhammad Sharif Pasha offered his services to the British in Mesopotamia. Elsewhere, members of the Badr Khan family held shut relations with Russian officials and discussed their intentions to form an contained Kurdistan.^[31]

Yemenese politics [edit]

Republic of yemen Vilayet was a start-level authoritative division of the Empire. In the tardily 19th century, the Zaidis rebelled against the Empire, and Imam Mohammed ibn Yahya laid the foundation of a hereditary dynasty.^[32] When he died in 1904, his successor Imam Yahya ibn Mohammed led the revolt confronting the Empire in 1904–1905, and forced them to grant important concessions to the Zaidis.^[32] The Ottoman agreed to withdraw the civil lawmaking and restore sharia in Republic of yemen.^[32] In 1906, the Idrisi leaders of Asir rebelled against the Ottomans. Past 1910 they controlled virtually of Asir, but they were ultimately defeated past Ottoman Army and Hejazi forces.^[33] Ahmed Izzet Pasha concluded a treaty with Imam Yahya in October 1911, by which he was recognized as temporal and spiritual head of the Zaidis, was given the right to appoint officials over them, and collect taxes from them. The Ottomans maintained their system of authorities in the Sunni-majority parts of Republic of yemen.^[32]

In March 1914, the Anglo-Turkish Treaty delimited the border between Republic of yemen and the Aden Protectorate.^[32] This was the backdrop to the later sectionalization in two Yemeni states (up to 1990).

Zionist politics [edit]

The World Zionist Organization was established in Constantinople; Theodor Herzl had tried to prepare up debt relief for Sultan Abdul Hamid II in exchange for Palestinian lands. Until the Kickoff World War its activities focused on cultural matters, although political aims were never absent.^[34] Before the Starting time Globe War, Herzl'southward attempts to attain a political understanding with the Ottoman rulers of Palestine were unsuccessful. But on 11 April 1909, Tel Aviv was founded on the outskirts of the ancient port urban center of Jaffa. The Earth Zionist System supported small-scale-calibration settlement in Palestine and focused on strengthening Jewish feeling and consciousness and on building a worldwide federation. At the outset of World War I near Jews (and Zionists) supported the High german Empire in its war confronting the Russian Empire. The Balfour Announcement (dated 2 Nov 1917) and Henry McMahon had exchanged letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca in 1915, a shift to some other concept (Jewish national domicile vs. Jewish land) which is explained under Homeland for the Jewish people.

Foreign policy [edit]

The interstate organization at the beginning of the twentieth century was a multipolar one, with no single or ii states pre-eminent. Multipolarity traditionally had afforded the Ottomans the ability to play-off one ability against the other.^[35] Initially, the Cup and Freedom and Accordance turned to Britain. Federal republic of germany had supported the Hamidian government and caused a strong foothold. By encouraging U.k. to compete against Germany and French republic, the Ottomans hoped to break French republic and Germany'south hold and acquire greater autonomy for the Porte. Hostility to Germany increased when her ally Austria-hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The pro-Unionist Tanin went then far as to advise that Vienna'south motive in carrying out this act was to strike a blow against the constitutional government and assist reaction in order to bring almost its fall.^[36] Two prominent Unionists, Ahmed Riza Pasha and Dr. Nazim Pasha, were sent to London to hash out options of cooperation with Sir Edward Grey and Sir Charles Hardinge.

Our habit was to continue our hands free, though we fabricated ententes and friendships. It was truthful that nosotros had an brotherhood with Nippon, merely it was limited to certain afar questions in the Far E.^[c]
They [Ottoman consul] replied that Empire was the Japan of the About East (prompting to Meiji Restoration menstruation which spanned from 1868 to 1912), and that we already had the Cyprus Convention which was still in forcefulness.
I said that they had our entire sympathy in the expert piece of work they were doing in the Empire; we wished them well, and nosotros would help them in their internal affairs by lending them men to organize customs, police, and then forth, if they wished them.^[36]

Strange Minister Tevfik's successor, Mehmed Rifat Pasha was a career diplomat from a merchant family. The CUP, who were predominantly civilian, resented the intrusion of the army into government.^[13] The Loving cup, who seized power from Freedom and Accordance in Jan 1913, were more convinced than ever that merely an brotherhood with Britain and the Entente could guarantee the survival of what remained of the Empire. In June, therefore, the subject of an Anglo-Turkish alliance was reopened by Tevfik Pasha, who only restated his proposal of October 1911. Once again the offering was turned down.

Sir Louis Mallet, who became Britain'due south Ambassador to the Porte in 1914, noted that

Turkey'southward mode of assuring her independence is by an brotherhood with us or by an undertaking with the Triple Entente. A less risky method [he thought] would be by a treaty or Declaration binding all the Powers to respect the independence and integrity of the nowadays Turkish rule, which might get as far as neutralization, and participation by all the Cracking Powers in financial command and the application of reform.

The CUP felt betrayed by what they considered was Europe'southward bias during the Balkan Wars, and therefore they had no faith in Nifty Power declarations regarding the Empire'southward independence and integrity; the termination of European financial control and administrative supervision was one of the principal aims of CUP'due south policies. Though these royal powers had experienced relatively few major conflicts between them over the previous hundred years, an underlying rivalry, otherwise known as "the Great Game", had exacerbated the situation to such an extent that resolution was sought. Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 brought shaky British-Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified their respective command in Persia, Afghanistan. Overall, the Convention represented a carefully calculated move on each ability'south part in which they chose to value a powerful alliance over potential sole control over diverse parts of Central Asia. The Ottoman Empire lied on the crossroads to Fundamental Asia. The Convention served as the goad for creating a "Triple Entente", which was the basis of the brotherhood of countries opposing the Central Powers. Ottoman Empire's path in Ottoman entry into Earth State of war I was set with that agreement, which ended the Groovy Game.

I way to challenge and undermine the army'southward position was past attacking Germany in the press and supporting friendship with Germany's rival, Not bad Uk. Just neither Britain nor France responded to Cup's advance of friendship. In fact France resented the government'south (Porte) desire to acquire financial autonomy.^[13]

In early on 1914 the Constantinople was concerned with iii principal goals. The commencement was improving relations with Bulgaria; the second was to encourage support from the Germans, and the third was to settle negotiations with Europe about the Armenian reform.

With regard to the first, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria showed sympathy to 1 another considering they suffered as a result of the territories lost with the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). They also had bitter relations with Greece. They would eventually sign a hole-and-corner treaty of alliance, and during World War I, fight on the same side.

With regard to the second, there were three war machine missions active at the plow of 1914. These were the British Naval Mission led by Admiral Limpus, the French Gendarme Mission led by General Moujen, and the German War machine Mission led by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. The German Military Mission become the most important amid these three. The history of German language-Ottoman military relations went back to the 1880s. The Thousand Vizier Said Halim Pasha (12 June 1913 – 4 February 1917) and Ottoman Minister of War Ahmet Izzet Pasha (11 June 1913 – 3 January 1914) were instrumental in developing the initial relations. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered General Goltz to establish the first German mission. General Goltz served two periods within ii years. In early 1914, the Ottoman Minister of State of war became the quondam military attaché to Berlin, Enver Pasha. Most the aforementioned time, General Otto Liman von Sanders was nominated to the command of the High german 1st Army.

With regard to the 3rd, an Armenian reform parcel was negotiated with the Russian Empire. Russia, acting on behalf of the Not bad Powers, played a crucial role introducing reforms for the Armenian citizens of the Empire. The Armenian reform packet, which was solidified in February 1914 and was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this organization the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a flow of ten years, and their engagement was non to be revocable during that period.^[d]

World War I [edit]

The Ottoman Empire entered WWI with the attack on Russian federation's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The assault prompted Russia and its allies, Great britain and French republic, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire was active in the Balkans theatre and Middle Eastern theatre – the latter had v main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Entrada, the Western farsi Campaign, and the Gallipoli Campaign. There were as well several small campaigns: the North African Campaign, the Arab Campaign and the South Arabia Campaign. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Boxing of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 31 October 1918, ending the Ottoman participation in World State of war I.

Genocide of minorities [edit]

This department is empty. You tin can help by adding to it. (August 2021)

1918 was marked by nutrient shortages and famine, which wreaked havoc on the Empire

Collection of civilian corpses from Erzinzan

Mehmet Half dozen (1918–1922) [edit]

Just earlier the terminate of Globe War I, Sultan Mehmet V died and Mehmed VI became the new Sultan.

The Occupation of Constantinople took place in accordance with the Ceasefire of Mudros, ending the Ottoman participation in World State of war I. The occupation had two stages: the initial occupation took place from 13 November 1918 to sixteen March 1920; from 16 March 1920 – Treaty of Sèvres. The twelvemonth 1918 saw the starting time time Constantinople had changed hands since the Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine capital in 1453. An Allied military administration was set upward early in December 1918. Hagia Sophia was converted dorsum into a cathedral by the Allied administration, and the building was returned temporarily to the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The CUP members were courtroom-martialled during the Turkish courts-martial of 1919–1920 with charges of subversion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Greeks and Armenians.^[38] The courts-martial became a stage for political battles. The trials helped Liberty and Accord root out the Loving cup from the political arena. The fall of the Cup immune the Palace to regain the initiative once once more, though just for less than a year. The British also rounded up a number of members of the Imperial Government and interned them in Malta, but for them to exist exchanged in the hereafter for British POWs without farther trial.^[39] Sir Gough-Calthorpe included merely members of the Government of Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities.

Discredited members of the Ottoman regime were resurrected in guild to form imperceptible governments and conduct personal diplomacy. Thus, Ahmet Tevfik Pasha formed two ministries betwixt November 1918 and March 1919, to be followed by Abdul Hamid's brother-in-law Damat Ferid Pasha who led three cabinets in seven months. Damad Ferid, having served in diplomatic missions throughout Europe during the Hamidian era, and having been acquainted with European statesmen during his tenure as a Liberal politician, was considered an asset in the negotiations for the very survival of the Ottoman state and dynasty.

Partitioning [edit]

Later on the war, the doctrine of Ottomanism lost its credibility. As parts of the Empire were integrated into the world economy, certain regions (the Balkans, Arab republic of egypt, Iraq, and Hijaz) established closer economic links with Paris and London, or even with British Republic of india, than with Constantinople, which became known in English as Istanbul effectually 1930.

The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire began with the Treaty of London (1915) and continued with mostly bilateral multiple agreements among the Allies. The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice of Mudros. This was followed by the Occupation of Constantinople. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire brought international conflicts which were discussed during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The peace agreement, the Treaty of Sèvres, was eventually signed by the Ottoman Empire (not ratified) and the Allied administration. The consequence of the Peace Settlement was that every indigenous group of the Empire would learn its own land.

Treaty of Sèvres [edit]

The text of the Treaty of Sèvres was not made public to the Ottoman public^{[ clarification needed ]} until May 1920. The Allies decided that the Empire would be left but a small surface area in Northern and Central Anatolia to rule. Opposite to general expectations, the Sultanate along with the Caliphate^{[ description needed ]} was not terminated, and information technology was immune to retain capitol^{[ description needed ]} and a minor strip of territory around the city, but not the straits. The shores of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were planned to exist internationalised, so that the gates of the Black Ocean would be kept open. West Anatolia was to be offered to Greece, and East Anatolia was to be offered to Armenia. The Mediterranean coast, although still a office of the Empire, was partitioned betwixt 2 zones of influence for France and Italian republic. The interior of Anatolia, the first seat of Ottoman power vi centuries ago, would retain Ottoman sovereignty.

The idea of an independent Armenian state survived the demise of Ottoman Empire through the Autonomous Democracy of Armenia, after conquered by the Bolsheviks.^[e]

In 1918, Kurdish tribal leader Sharif Pasha pressed the British to adopt a policy supporting autonomous Kurdish state. He suggested that British officials exist charged with administering the region. During the Paris Peace Briefing, a Kurdo-Armenian peace accordance was reached between Sharif Pasha and Armenian representatives at the conference in 1919. The British thought that this agreement would increase the likelihood of independent Kurdish and Armenian states and therefore create a buffer between British Mesopotamia and the Turks.^[30]

The Arab forces were promised a land that included much of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent; however, the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France provided for the territorial division of much of that region between the 2 regal powers.

The Allies dictated the terms of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Sèvres. The Turkish nationalist Ottoman Parliament rejected these terms, as they did not conform to the Parliament's ain conditions for sectionalization, the Misak-ı Millî (English: National Pact) published in early 1920. No Ottoman assent was possible while Parliament remained intransigent.

Following the Conference of London on iv March 1920, the Allies decided to actively suppress Turkish nationalist opposition to the Treaty. On fourteen March 1920, Allied troops moved to occupy key buildings and arrest nationalists in Constantinople. Parliament met a final time on 18 March 1920 earlier being dissolved past Sultan Mehmed Half dozen on 11 April 1920. Many parliamentarians relocated to Ankara and formed a new government.

The Allies were freed to deal with the Sultan directly. Mehmed 6 signed the Treaty on ten Baronial 1920. The Purple Authorities in Constantinople attempted and failed to convene the Senate to ratify the treaty; its legitimacy was fatally undermined by the Turkish nationalists' refusal to cooperate. The resulting Turkish State of war of Independence and the subsequent nationalist victory permanently prevented the Treaty from being ratified.

The Turkish War of Independence ended with the Turkish nationalists in control of much of Anatolia. On one November 1922 the Turkish provisional government formally declared the Ottoman Sultanate and, with it, the Ottoman Empire to be abolished. Mehmed Six departed Constantinople and into exile on 17 November 1922. The Allies and Turks met in Lausanne, Switzerland to discuss a replacement for the unratified Treaty of Sèvres.

End of the Ottoman Empire [edit]

The resulting Treaty of Lausanne secured international recognition for the new Turkish state and its borders. The Treaty was signed on 24 July 1923 and ratified in Turkey on 23 August 1923. The Republic of Turkey was formally declared on 29 October 1923.

The following year on 23 April 1924, the democracy alleged 150 personae non gratae of Turkey, including the former Sultan, to be personae non-gratae. Most of these restrictions were lifted on 28 June 1938.

Image gallery [edit]

• 

  Abdülhamid Two

• 

  Mehmed V

• 

  Mehmed VI

Run across besides [edit]

• The Ottomans: Europe's Muslim Emperors
• Committee of Union and Progress
• Abolitionism of the Ottoman sultanate
• Eastern Question

Footnotes [edit]

1. ^ From the 15th century ordinary functions of government were left out of the Empire'south control and each millet began to run their ain schools, to collect taxes to support welfare for its own group, to organize and police its ain neighborhoods and to punish transgressors according to its own laws in its own courts. Under this system, different religious and ethnic groups enjoyed a wide range of religious and cultural freedoms and considerable administrative, fiscal and legal autonomy.^[3]
2. ^ Listing of religions under the inspectorates were Muslim, Orthodox Christian, Apostolic Christian, Catholic Christian, Evangelical Christian, Syriac Orthodox Christian, and Jews. Kurds who were fighting for autonomy in the same region of the inspectorates were classified every bit Muslim. In 1908, the Ottoman parliament had 288 seats and 14 were occupied by Armenians.
3. ^ Regarding the brotherhood's provisions for mutual defense, it was aimed for Japan to enter the First World War on the British side.
4. ^ The Russian cable informing the coming agreement: "Thus the Act of January 22nd 1914 signifies without dubiety the opening of a new and happier era in the history of the Armenian people. In political significance: it is comparable with the Firman of 1870 in which the Bulgarian Exarchate was founded and the Bulgars were freed from Greek guardianship. The Armenians must feel that the starting time step has been taken towards releasing them from the Turkish yoke. The agreement of January 26th 1914 has at the same time peachy significance for the international condition of Russia. It has been signed personally by the Grand Vizier and Russia's representative and pledges the Turks to hand to the Powers a note the contents of which have been precisely set forth. The outstanding part of Russia in the Armenian question is thus officially emphasized and Art 16 of the Treaty of San Stefano to some extent ratified."^[37]
   M Gulkievitch the Charge d'Affaires of the Russian Embassy
5. ^ Almost First Republic of Armenia.

   "In the summer of 1918, the Armenian national councils reluctantly transferred from Tiflis to Yerevan to take over the leadership of the commonwealth from the popular dictator Aram Manukian and the renowned war machine commander Drastamat Kanayan. It so began the daunting process of establishing a national administrative mechanism in an isolated and landlocked misery. This was non the autonomy or independence which Armenian intellectuals had dreamed of and for which a generation of youth had been sacrificed. Nevertheless, as it happened, it was here that the Armenian people were destined to continue [their] national existence."^[forty]

   —R.K. Hovannisian

   First Republic of Armenia 28 May 1919 – two December 1920.

References [edit]

1. ^ Reynolds 2011, p. i
2. ^ ^{a b} Kent 1996, p. 18
3. ^ Quataert, D. (2005). The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922. Cambridge, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland: Cambridge Academy Press. p. 178.
4. ^ Maksudyan, Nazan (2014). Orphans and Destitute Children in the Tardily Ottoman Empire. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. p. 103.
5. ^ Hechter, Michael (2001). Containing nationalism. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–77. ISBN0-xix-924751-X. OCLC 470549985.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e f thousand h i} Erickson, Edward (2013). Ottomans and Armenians: A Written report in Counterinsurgency. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-1137362209.
7. ^ Albertini 2005, p. 277.
8. ^ Ion, Theodore P. (April 1910). "The Cretan Question". The American Periodical of International Police force. four (2): 276–284. doi:10.2307/2186614. JSTOR 2186614.
9. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Finkel 2007, pp. 512–16 harvnb mistake: no target: CITEREFFinkel2007 (assist)
10. ^ Reynolds 2011, p. 23
11. ^ van Millingen, Alexander (1911). "Constantinople". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–9. ***Please notation a wikisource link is not avaiable to the EB1922 commodity [Ottoman Empire]***
12. ^ ^{a b c d} Nicolle 2008, p. 161
13. ^ ^{a b c} Kent 1996, p. 13
14. ^ Archives Diplomatiques. third series. Vol. 126. p. 127.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Nicolle 2008, p. 162
16. ^ ^{a b} Zickel, Raymond; Iwaskiw, Walter R. (1994). ""National Enkindling and the Birth of Albania, 1876–1918", Albania: A Land Written report". countrystudies.u.s.a. . Retrieved ix April 2008.
17. ^ ^{a b c} (Finkel 2007, pp. 526–27) harv error: no target: CITEREFFinkel2007 (aid)
18. ^ ^{a b c} Rogan, E.Fifty. (2002). Frontiers of the State in the Belatedly Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921. Cambridge Academy Printing. p. 192. ISBN9780521892230 . Retrieved 1 September 2013 – via Google Books.
19. ^ Schsenwald, William L. (Winter 1968). "The Vilayet of Syria, 1901–1914: A re-examination of diplomatic documents as sources". Eye Due east Journal. 22 (1): 73.
20. ^ Choueiri, pp.166–168.^{[ full citation needed ]}
21. ^ ^{a b} Karsh, Islamic Imperialism ^{[ total citation needed ]}
22. ^ Erickson, Edward (2013). Ottomans and Armenians: A Written report in Counterinsurgency. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-1137362209.
23. ^ Dasnabedian, Hratch, "The ideological creed" and "The evolution of objectives" in "a balance sheet of the xc years", Beirut, 1985, pp. 73–103^{[ full commendation needed ]}
24. ^ Hovannisian, Richard K. The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. p. 244.
25. ^ "[no commodity cited]". The Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 28. 1920. p. 412. ^{[ full citation needed ]}
26. ^ Pasdermadjian, G. (Armen Garo) (1918). Why Armenia Should be Free: Armenia's Role in the Present War. Boston, MA: Hairenik Pub. Co. p. 20.
27. ^ (Laçiner, pp. 473–504) harv error: no target: CITEREFLaçiner (assist)
28. ^ (McDowall 2004, p. 61) harv error: no target: CITEREFMcDowall2004 (help)
29. ^ McDowall 1996, p. 98
30. ^ ^{a b} McDowall 1996, pp. 131–137
31. ^ Jwaideh, Wadie (2006). The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Evolution. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. ISBN081563093X.
32. ^ ^{a b c d e} (Chatterji 1973, pp. 195–197)
33. ^ (Minahan 2002, p. 195)
34. ^ Finkel 2007, p. 529 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFinkel2007 (help)
35. ^ Reynolds 2011, p. 26
36. ^ ^{a b} Kent 1996, p. 12
37. ^ Paşa, Cemal (1922). Memories of a Turkish Statesman-1913-1919. George H. Doran Company. p. 274.
38. ^ Armenien und der Völkermord: Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Türkische Nationalbewegung. Hamburg: Hamburger Edition. 1996. p. 185.
39. ^ "Turkey'due south EU minister, Judge Giovanni Bonello and the Armenian genocide – 'Claim about Malta Trials is nonsense'". The Republic of malta Contained. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
40. ^ Herzig, Edmund; Kurkchiyan, Marina (eds.). The Armenians: Past and Nowadays in the Making of National Identity. p. 98.

Bibliography [edit]

• Akın, Yiğit (2018). When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN978-1-503-60490-2.
• Albertini, Luigi (2005). The Origins of the War of 1914. Vol. I. New York: Enigma Books.
• Bandžović, S. (2003). "Ratovi i demografska deosmanizacija Balkana (1912-1941)" [Wars and Demographic De-Ottomanization of the Balkans (1912–1941)]. Prilozi. Sarajevo. 32: 179–229.
• David, Tater (2008). The Arab Revolt 1916–18 Lawrence sets Arabia Ablaze (3 ed.). London: Osprey. ISBN978-1-84603-339-i.
• Erickson, Edward (2013). Ottomans and Armenians: A Report in Counterinsurgency. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-1137362209.
• Erickson, Edward (2001). Gild to Dice: A History of the Ottoman Regular army in the Commencement World War. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN0-313-31516-7.
• Erickson, Edward (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Westport: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Bones Books.
• McDowall, David (1996). A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN1850436533.
• Nicolle, David (2008). The Ottomans: Empire of Religion. Thalamus Publishing. ISBN978-1902886114.
• Fromkin, David (2009). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Mod Middle East. Macmillan.
• Kent, Marian (1996). The Cracking Powers and the Cease of the Ottoman Empire. Routledge. ISBN0714641545.
• Lewis, Bernard (30 Baronial 2001). The Emergence of Mod Turkey (3 ed.). Oxford University Printing, The states. ISBN0-19-513460-5.
• Ishkanian, Armine (2008). Democracy Building and Ceremonious Order in Post-Soviet Armenia. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-203-92922-iii.
• Minahan, James (2002). Encyclopedia of the stateless nations. i. A – C. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-313-32109-2 . Retrieved 1 June 2013.
• Reynolds, Michael A. (2011). Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 324. ISBN978-0521149167.
• Chatterji, James Nikshoy C. (1973). Muddle of the Middle East. Abhinav Publications. ISBN978-0-391-00304-0 . Retrieved 1 June 2013.
• Trumpener, Ulrich (1962). "Turkey'due south Entry into World State of war I: An Assessment of Responsibilities". Journal of Modernistic History. 34 (4): 369–80. doi:10.1086/239180. S2CID 153500703.
• Laçiner, Bal; Bal, Ihsan (2004). "The Ideological And Historical Roots of Kurdist Movements in Turkey: Ethnicity Demography, Politics". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 10 (3). doi:10.1080/13537110490518282. S2CID 144607707.
• Muller, Jerry Z (March–April 2008), "United states of america and Them – The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism", Strange Affairs, Council on Foreign Relations, retrieved thirty December 2008

Farther reading [edit]

• Öktem, Emre (September 2011). "Turkey: Successor or continuing state of the Ottoman empire?". Leiden Journal of International Law. 24 (iii): 561–583. doi:ten.1017/S0922156511000252. S2CID 145773201. - published online on v August 2011

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire

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